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School Administrators' and Educational Specialists' Workshop 
Brigham City, Utah ' June 15--26, 1959 


UNITED STATES 

Department of the Interior 
Bureau of Indian Affairs 
Branch of Education 


























































n 


A 

Q ^ 

1 ^ ^ CONTENTS 

Con ^ 

Introduction. i 

Audio-Visual and Library Services . 1 

Fred C. Clark, Jr. 

Audio-Visual Research . 3 

Donald J. Morrow 

Grouping and Promotion. 9 

Rose Ellen Gerber 

Images of the Future . 12 

Leila K. Black 

Improving Teaching Techniques at the Secondary Level .... 17 

Elizabeth Pierce 

Language Arts - Listening. 20 

Gertrude Giesen 

Length of School Day and Year. 24 

Mamie M. Searles 

Nutrition Education in the Elementary High Schools ..... 27 

Mary 0. Perkinson 

Nutrition Education in the Elementary and High Schools ... 29 

Bula E. Reese 

Reporting to Parents . 31 

Eunice Logan 

Sample Studies in Supervision ... . 34 

Orpha McPherson 

Teaching Techniques in High School . 37 

Norma C. Runyan 

Testing.38 

Wallace E. Galluzzi 

Testing Program. 39 

Euphrasia Mitchell 















INTRODUCTION 


Key school administrative and supervisory personnel from the 
Bureau and Indian leaders from fifteen tribes participated jointly in 
a two-week workshop. The purpose of this conference was to weigh the 
progress that has been made in the last two years toward improving the 
educational programs in Bureau schools. 

As preparation for their participation as technical staff, 
the educational specialists prepared fact sheets on trends in edu¬ 
cation. The papers are published as a separate part of the final 
workshop report so that they may be attached to the report of the 1958 
Educational Specialists' Conference. 


i 


AUDIO-VISUAL AND LIBRARY SERVICES 


Although the last year has seen no earth-shattering develop¬ 
ments in the library and the A-V field, the tendency of these materials 
of instruction to move more closely to each other has been marked and 
encouraging. 

Books are often the key to knowledge; A-V materials often the 
key to greater retention, deeper understanding, and improved motivation 
for learning. Despite these promises, there are times when both seem 
to have lost their way. 

In some schools, funds for the salary of a librarian or to 
keep the library functioning have been lost. As we try to help our 
learners bridge the cultural gap - learners from a nonbook background - 
the loss of a strong, working library with a professional in charge is 
indeed unfortunate. 

Audio-Visual materials, sometimes defined as everything from 
chalkboards to teacher (if attractive), have also missed the marko 
Too often they have promised educational ''moons" impossible of achieve¬ 
ment, or the apparent complexity of equipment has been frightening. 

Administrators have not always understood just what the newer 
A-V materials might do to improve the quality of teaching or how to 
use them. Some of the "cut and try" efforts have been disappointing. 
Gradually in the school world the place of both books and A-V is 
becoming clearer. Both are instructional materials to be chosen, used, 
and evaluated exactly as any other material is chosen or used. Whether 
it be a movie, still picture, or educational record, it must serve a 
purpose and help achieve a definite goal or it should not be used in 
the classroom as teaching material. 

In order to make the classroom use more practical, forward- 
looking administrators are assigning clerical duties (orders, typing, 
checking and returning) to clerks. All mechanical phases of equipment 
operation are taken over by vocational or maintenance personnel. Each 
classroom has trained students to operate any equipment the teacher 
needs. The selection, preparation, use, and follow-up of any material 
is the work of the teacher. Increasingly, the teacher's duties are 
professional, instructional ones. 


1 



Larger school libraries have staffs of librarians and A-V 
personnel. The mechanics and clerical functions are handled elsewhere 
as we have mentioned; but the materials, guidance, and help with 
selection come from the library and the A-V staff. Often this is 
called the instructional materials center. Smaller schools have a 
combined position - a person skilled in librarianship and A-V materials 
Thus, teacher or student searching for material find books, records, 
strips, still pictures, and information about others - not on hand 
but obtainable - all consolidated in one location. A central catalogue 
a central location - a renewed realization of the value of a strong 
library - an understanding that A-V materials are instructional rather 
than miraculous. These are trends on the current Library and A-V scene 


Fred C. Clark, Jr. 
Educational Specialist (A-V) 


2 


AUDIO-VISUAL RESEARCH 


The Educational Motion Picture 


In some quarters there is the mistaken idea that pictorial 
materials are somehow an inferior medium which is for the poor teacher 
or the low-grade student. Actually, research studies show (e. g., 
Vernon, 1946; Meierhenry, 1952; Nerden, 1954) that the better teachers 
get better results from films and the most intelligent students learn 
more from them. The better teachers also use more films o \j 

In Vernon's study, it was found that students in classes with 
a better teacher showed more learning from a film, even if the teacher 
had nothing to do during its presentation. This correlation suggests 
that the good teacher may have created a higher level of motivation to 
learn. Similarly, the parents will have an important influence on, or 
role in, the student's motivation to learn which should affect his 
learning from films as well as from other classroom methods. 

Allison and Ash (1951) have shown that telling students that 
the material in a film is important and difficult improves their 
learning. 

Howell (1954) found that when a motion picture was used as a 
basis of class discussion, the ratio of student-participation to 
teacher-talking time was increased. V 

Research shows that when a film is used for the teaching of 
facts, the appreciable gain is confined to the first two showings, 
after which there is a very rapid decline in the amount learned. 4/ 

Research shows that a variety of methods is more effective 
than any single audio-visual tool. In this context, the facts and 
promises of educational television are examined. The study concludes: 
"There is no clear evidence as yet of a major break-through in the 


\J Neal E. Miller, "Graphic Communication and the Crisis in Education," 
Audio-Visual Communication Review , Vol. 5, No. 3. Dec. 1957, p, 37 
Miller, Op. Cit., p. 74 
3/ Ibid. 

4/ C. L. McTavish, "Effects of Repetitive Film Showings on Learning," 
Instructional Film Research Program , SDC 269-7-12. 

Pennsylvania State College, Nov. 1949 


3 






speed or effectiveness of learning because of classroom television. 

This medium, like the others....is another effective aid in the 
teaching process. It is not the educational revolution." V 

Research in the field of education has demonstrated repeated¬ 
ly that passive spectatorship is a poor way to learn, and various types 
of experiments in instructional communication with such groups as the 
Armed Forces confirm it. For example, it has been shown that students 
learn new words faster by repeating them along with a teaching film. 

And, in such studies as foreign languages, there have been many success¬ 
ful experiments with techniques which emphasize participation involving 
activity and practice. An important kind of active participation is 
represented by the group-learning situation, which places emphasis upon 
individuals acting in cooperation with each other. Examples can be 
furnished from both ends of the chronology of education-- the modern 
elementary school, which stresses group cohesiveness and learning as 
a process related to other learners, and the college seminar. 

On the basis, therefore, of a number of studies summarized, 
Hoban and van Ormer (1950) suggest that learning from motion pictures 
often is especially well-retained. Ij 

Need for Teacher Training 

Only about 20 percent of the teachers in this country get 
formal course work in the audio-visual field. Most of them have no 
opportunity during their teacher education to see the key films, 
filmstrips, or slides in their fields. Their education in this respect 
occurs on the job, if at all. 

A University of Wisconsin study (White, 1953) reports that a 
great proportion of secondary teachers who studied there did not even 
know what a filmstrip projector was. In other cases the teachers may 
know something about these new techniques, but not enough to anticipate 
using them with success. 

A rough estimate is that at present only 20 percent of 
practicing teachers have had a course in audio-visual methods. 


_5/ Audio-Visual Instruction . "EPC Study Shows Depth of Thinking," 
Sept. 1958, p. 180 

i5/ Brown, Lewis, Harcleroad, AV Instruction Materials and Methods , 
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, pp. 11-12 
7/ Miller, Op. Git., p. 107 
8/ Ibid., pp. 22-23 


4 







Furthermore, some of the courses, as might be expected, leave much 
to be desired. Prospective teachers are taught about graphic 
communication but not by means of it, 9_/ 

Some teachers may be insecure and fear being replaced by the 
film. That such insecurity may be a source of resistance is 
suggested by Vernon's (1946) finding that it was the poorest teachers 
who failed to see any advantage in the use of motion pictures. Conversely, 
Nerden (1954) found that the film users tended to be the more highly 
cooperative teachers who assumed additional responsibilities both in 
the school and the community, conducted student-centered classrooms, 
and were accustomed to using all kinds of learning resources. These 
studies indicate that the generally better teachers tend to use the 
new pictorial techniques. 10 / 

One of the problems of efficient teaching is to build up a 
discrimination so that the student will respond only to the relevant 
cues and not be misled or distracted by the irrelevant ones. Gagne 
and Foster (1949) found that giving preliminary training with a little 
booklet containing pictorial representations of a task improved sub¬ 
sequent learning. They believe that one of the main functions of this 
preliminary training was to help the students to learn to differentiate 
the relevant cues. We would expect motion pictures to be able to 
improve learning by focusing attention on the relevant cues. 11/ 

It takes skill and judgment for a teacher to make the best 
use of the motion picture as a means of introducing, developing, and 
summarizing units of study, because the fitness of a picture in these 
connections depends on some very complicated variables--among them 
the pupil, the teacher, the curriculum, and the film itself. Teachers 
need to maintain a flexible and reasonably liberal attitude about 
their choice of films, and they ought not to be too narrowly logical. 

For example, a film that provides a general survey of a large body of 
knowledge may at the same time be useful at any stage of a unit and 
may be as effective in initiating as in concluding it. 


9 / Miller. Op. Cit., pp. 40-41 
IQl Ibid., p. 36 
n/ Ibid., p. 83 


5 



Thera are. no criteria for choosing and judging educational 
films that can take the place of common sense, discrimination, and 
experience, but it is possible to phrase some basic tests that may 
valuably supplement these requirements and guide the application of 
them. Films, to be educationally worthwhile, must: 

1. Be appropriate to the stage of development of the 
pupils. 

2. Provide a content that is of direct interest and 
value to them. 

3. Be related to their curriculum by virtue of important 
information or inspiration. 

k. Be authentic and truthful in substance and treatment. 

5. Have technical merit--good photography, sound, and 
general arrangement, besides, of course, general 
good taste. 12 / 

Effective use of audio-visual materials requires that they 
be selected in terms of clearly perceived goals. Teachers need to 
be clear as to the knowledge they want their pupils to acquire, the 
skills they wish them to develop, the understandings they desire them 
to build, and the attitudes they hope they will form. Desirable use 
of audio-visual materials requires teachers to serve as guides to 
learners, not merely as dispensers of information. 13 / 

The report by Wesley G. Meierhenry, Enriching the Curriculum 
Through Motion Fictures (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 

1952), on a four-year program cf films in Nebraska secondary schools 
summarizes the educational values of the motion picture as follows: 

l. Motion pictures enrich the learning process and lead 
to greater all-around achievement. (Chapter VI) 

2. Motion pictures directly modify beliefs in desirable 
directions and cau-se students to seek additional 
information about subjects studied. (Chapter VII) 


12 / Lester B. Sands, Audio-Visual Procedures in Teaching, 1956. 
Chapter 20, pp. 356-357 

13 / Paul W. F. Witt, **Some if's About AV." Audio-Vosual Instruction . 
September 1958, pp.178-179 


6 







3. Motion pictures improve educational achievement by 
different amounts in different subjects, and their 
influence is greater in larger classes than in smaller, 
although no significant differences are observable in 
the amount of knowledge gained. (Chapter VIII) 

This report on a program conducted for four years under a 
Carnegie Foundation grant shows that teachers and administrators are 
deeply concerned about making the best use of school time. (Chapter 
XII) The study shows that the use of films taught the teachers to 
allot and plan their time more carefully because it was necessary to 
schedule the picture showings in advance for the whole school year. 
Also, motion pictures - because of the number and variety of the 
aspects of their subject matter - seemed to expand the imaginations 
of teachers and prompt them to read extensively to prepare themselves 
for answering the questions that the motion pictures would probably 
raise. Class discussion became more energetic and controversial and 
put the teachers under pressure to give themselves thorough prepara¬ 
tion. 


The students who participated in this experimental program 
are reported as having given both general and specific testimony in 
its favor. They said among other things that "the use of motion 
pictures in science, the social studies, and the convocations helped 
to clarify many concepts....'History is made more lifelike and 
realistic when motion pictures are used.' Motion pictures on heredity 
resulted in a student panel discussion requiring research in a wide 
variety of printed materials." 14 / 


Donald J. Morrow 
Educational Specialist (A-V) 


14 / Sands, Loc. Cit. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Brown, Lewis, Harcleroad, AV Instruction Materials and Methods . 
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York 

"EPC Study Shows Depth of Thinking," Audio-Visual Instruction , 
Sept. 1958 


7 





McTavish, C. L., "Effects of Repetitive Film Showings on Learning," 
Instructional Film Research Program , SDC 269-7-12, Pennsylvania 
State College, Nov. 1949 

Miller, Neal E., "Graphic Communication and the Crisis in Education," 
Audio-Visual Communication Review , Vol. 5, No. 3, Dec. 1957 

Sands, Lester B., Audio-Visual Procedures in Teaching , 1956, Chap. 20 

Witt, Paul W. F., "Some If’s About AV," Audio-Visual Instruction , 
Sept. 1958 


8 






GROUPING AND PROMOTION 


"Children learn much from their teachers. But children 
learn at least as much, or more, from one another." 

The classroom society embraces a wide range of individual 
differences and instills and encourages such ideals as an abiding 
faith in the individual, his dignity, his worth, his freedom, and his 
essential equality. 

Grouping provides a social setting where boys and girls have 
every possible encouragement to grow socially, emotionally, physical¬ 
ly, and intellectually. A group that embraces many differences offers 
a special stimulation for growth for boys and girls who are unlike one 
another in many ways. 

Children are grouped in such a way that the classes in each 
grade have about the same median age. Each grade has its leaders and 
followers, mature and immature children, imitators and conformers, 
children who require little time of adults, and children who require 
a great deal. These children are evenly distributed among the groups. 

Each group includes children who differ greatly in mental 
ability. Each class is made up of children of varying intellectual 
abilities. 


Each group includes children who are physically immature 
and physically skillful. 

In the elementary school, special abilities begin to blossom, 
abilities in art, music, dramatics, cooking, photography, and crafts. 
If the classroom is to serve as a laboratory where children learn from 
one another, talented boys and girls must be spread out among the 
various groups. By distributing talent, we expose children to a wide 
range of interests and encourage each pupil to discover and develop 
his own interests. 

When each class contains roughly the same number of boys and 
girls, it is more likely that the children will have the opportunity 
to learn to get along with members of the other sex. 

Children from the same neighborhoods are not assigned to the 
same group, nor are they assigned to the same teacher year after year. 


9 


As friendships grow, cliques arise, and interrelationships 
emerge, the effects on the child should be evaluated. If separation 
is wise, certain children should be separated. When children depend 
upon one another for successive schooling, it is wise to keep them 
together. 


Children interact with teachers, so a highly sensitive, 
retiring child should probably be assigned to a calm, reassuring 
teacher, not to an effervescent or highly enthusiastic teacher. 

Faculty members have to take special care to be highly objective. 

A strong concern expressed by parent or teacher should be 
given appropriate consideration. 

When a staff shares the responsibility for grouping, teachers 
are much more sensitive to children’s qualities, far more aware of the 
interplay of qualities in a class, and continuously aware of the 
importance of grouping. Having helped assign the children, teachers 
are far more satisfied with the make-up of their groups. 

... George E, Raab 

The ultimate goal of education is identical with that of 
living; the achievement of wholeness, of integrity, of a unified 
selfhood. To experience this and to help others experience this is 
the most satisfying and creative aspect of living, 

... Hugh Perkins 

Most pupils make normal progress through the grades, but 
because of differences in capacity, pupils progress at varying rates. 
Therefore, promotion or nonpromotion is an individual problem with 
each student. Ordinarily, no pupil is retained more than once in the 
first three grades, nor more than once in the remaining elementary 
grades. It is advocated as an educationally sound policy that a 
student be with his age group whenever possible. 

When a student deviates too widely from the average to be 
handled in a regular classroom, he should be considered for special 
placement with the decision still an individual problem. This same 
policy shall be in effect for students who are overage or have been 
retarded and are enrolling in our schools for the first time from 
other schools. 


... William F. Hall 


10 


Children should be promoted on the basis of their total 
adjustment rather than academic achievement alone. 

... Demarest, Coffield, and Bloomers 

In order to select children for each reading level within the 
grade, all the teachers of that grade meet together in the fall and 
divide the students into groups based on the results of tests and pre¬ 
vious teacher observations. 


... Cook 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Cook, School Management , Apr. 1959 

Demarest, Coffield, and Bloomer, "Effect of Nonpromotion on edu¬ 
cational Achievement in the Elementary School," Journal of Educational 
Psychology , Apr. 1958, pp. 235-50 

Hall, William F., "Effect on Achievement Scores of a Change in 
Promotional Policy," Elementary School Journal . Jan. 1958, pp.204-207 

Perkins, Hugh, National Education Association Journal , Dec. 1957 

Perkins, Larry, "Invitation to Learning," National Education Associa ¬ 
tion Journa l, Apr. 1958, pp. 252-254 

Raab, George E., "The Class Group - Social Setting," 

Elementary School Journa l, Dec. 1958 

Thompson, Ethel, "The Ungraded Plan," National Education Association 
Journal . Jan. 1958, pp. 16-18 

Wood, Helen Cowan, "Children Who Move With the Crops," National 
Education Association Journal, Mar. 1958, pp 170-172 


Rose Ellen Gerber 
Educational Specialist 


11 














IMAGES OF THE FUTURE 


A New Approach to the Secondary School 

o.. by J. Lloyd Trump 


The secondary school of the future will not have standard 
classes of 25 to 35 students meeting five days a week on inflexible 
schedules. Both the size of the groups and the length of the classes 
will vary from day to day. No longer will one teacher be in charge 
of all of the activities of a class in one subject. Instead, teaching 
will be organized for greater efficiency and effectiveness. 

The school will be organized around three kinds of activities: 

1. Large-group instruction 

2. Individual study 

3. Small-group discussions 

Large-Group Instruction 

Large-group instruction will include a number of activities 
carried out in groups of 100 or more students. Instructions and dis¬ 
cussions will be conducted by teachers who are particularly competent 
and who will utilize the best possible instructional aids. 

Individual Study 

Students will engage in study activities as individuals or in 
groups of two or three with a minimum of constant supervision. 

Students will read, listen to records and tapes, question, experiment, 
examine, consider evidence, analyze, etc. Study activities will re¬ 
quire that students progressively take more responsibility for self- 
direction. 

Small-Group Discussions 

Small groups of 12 to 15 students and a teacher will pit mind 
against mind to sharpen understanding. Discussion activities will 
occupy about 20 percent of the students' time. This new concept will 
bring forth a variety of study patterns. No longer will one teacher 
have the responsibility of teaching all-of-a-subject group of 25 
students or more meeting as a class five days a week. Much more 
emphasis will be placed on training students to check their own progress 
and make more immediate self-appraisals, using a variety of machines 
and self-marking tests. 


12 







Possibly no bells will ring in the schools of the future. 

The school-of-the-future instructional staff will include the follow¬ 
ing categories of personnel: 

professional teachers 
teacher-specialists 
general teachers 

instruction assistants 
clerks 

general aids 
community consultants 
staff specialists 

In a school of 400 students there will be: 

10 professional teachers-full time 

instruction assistants-200 hours a week 

clerical assistants-100 hours a week 

general aids-50 hours a week 

community consultants and staff specialists-as needed 

The secondary school of the future will provide for closer 
relationship between student and teacher. The student will be able 
to develop a closer rapport with the teacher when he consults him as 
an individual. Maturing students must face the fact that teachers 
will not always be there to make them study. The teacher will be more 
of a consultant and less a task master. 

According to a number of surveys, today's average teacher 
works about a 48-hour week. Teachers usually spend 26 to 27 of these 
hours before students, five classes per day, five days per week — 
plus some study hall supervising. By contrast, the professional, or 
career, teacher-specialist in the future school will average 18 hours 
per week with student groups. Nine and a half hours will be spent in 
large-group instruction and eight and a half hours with small dis¬ 
cussion groups. Most teachers, of course, will spend time according 
to their individual interests and capacities. The school will recognize 
individual differences in teachers and utilize them accordingly. 

Career teachers V7ill have more time to devote to studying new 
developments and research findings in their own fields and doing 
professional tasks. 

Changing staffing patterns will affect costs. Here is a 
comparison of illustrative costs of today's secondary school with the 
one of the future. These figures are for a school with 400 students, 
or for each 400 students in a larger school. 


13 


Now 

16 teachers - average salary $5,500 .... $88,000 

Some clerical help (charged to principal's 

budget) .. o..... o, o. o... o. o. o <, o... .... .1 

Total .... ........... $88,000 

Future 

5 teacher-specialists - average salary $8,000 . $40,000 

5 general teachers - average salary $5,500, 

same as present ... 27,500 

instruction assistants - 200 hours per week, 

$1.80 per hour ................................. 12,960 


clerks - 100 hours per week, $1.40 per hour ........ 5,040 

general aids - 50 hours per week, $1.30 per hour ... 2,340 

Total ......................... $87,840 

There will be no difference in the cost of staff specialists and com¬ 
munity consultants so these are not included. 

Improved utilization of school facilities and teachers will 
mean that the school will operate more hours each day, more days in 
the year. This extended schedule will not require teachers to work 
a longer day or a six-day week. But those who are willing to work 
longer hours will be able to do so and receive higher salaries. 
Salaries will take into consideration training and experience, quality 
of service, and hours actually worked. The fact that better teaching 
means better education will be fully appreciated. 

In planning the facilities of the secondary school of the 
future, these things will be considered; 

1. Educational facilities will not be only a school building 
and its grounds. 

2. Space within the building will be planned for what will be 
taught in it and how it will be taught. 

3. Installations for effective use of electronics and 
mechanical aids will be provided. 


14 












The number and size of classrooms for 400 students is still 
not a definite determination. Educational facilities will be greatly 
changed in many areas. They will be more functional, flexible, 
pleasant and utilitarian, and have improved acoustics, better light 
and ventilation control. 

The secondary school of the future will play a much more 
active role in recruiting, screening, and training its personnel even 
before they become staff members. Programs of internship and post¬ 
graduate professional courses will be available to those who are late 
in developing interests in teaching. Teachers are not completely 
trained when they finish college. Cooperative projects involving 
teams of teachers will enable teachers to learn from each other. 
Students who leave the secondary schools of the future will find it • 
easier to make transition to other schools and job experiences. 

Schools will provide better and additional data toward placement. 

The secondary school of the future will be on a sounder basis 
in its community. Large numbers of adults will be used as part-time 
instructors and teaching assistants. Education will be a continuous 
process as graduation becomes less important because of adult education 
programs and closer integration of secondary schools and colleges or 
employment. This will bring about an integration of school and 
community. 

Many varieties of tests will be used to measure success. 
Evaluation will include attention to students before they enter 
secondary school and after they leave it. Thus, the evaluation will 
be broader and deeper, involving more people and things. Some 
suggestions made by critics are inconsistent and contradictory. Those 
who would improve the quality of education must consider consequences 
and alternatives. 

Listed below are some recommendations for improving today's 
educational programs: 

1. Students should be given more academic training. 

2. More attention should be paid to gifted youth. 

3. Quality of teaching should be improved, 

4. Needs of the space age should be considered, 

5. Professional standards of teachers should be raised. 

6. Teacher shortage problems should be solved, 

7. Teacher loads should be lightened. 


15 


8. Facilities should be improved. 

9. Salaries should be increased. 

All of the above suggestions for improving the secondary 
school of the future cannot be achieved for some time, in most 
situations. But they will never be attained unless action is started. 
Once a start toward improvement is made, needs for variations and 
additions will be apparent. 

The Commission on the Experimental Study of the Utilization of 
the Staff in the Secondary School, appointed in 1956, has a responsi¬ 
bility and a challenge. Already it has given evidence of new thinking 
for the secondary school of the future. 


Leila K. Black 
Educational Specialist 


16 


IMPROVING TEACHING TECHNIQUES AT THE SECONDARY LEVEL 


Group Techniques 

It is not always possible to create group interest in dis¬ 
cussion of a topic; regardless of the common interest of the students 
in the subject under discussion--some will sit quietly, not taking 
part in the discussion. It then becomes necessary to take other 
measures to arouse individual interest of each member of the group. 

One of the best methods for overcoming this lack of individual 
participation has been found to be the division of the large group 
into several, conversational-type units that either chum together, 
sit together, study together, or have intellectual equality for which 
there is a mutual respect. In short, the student is more likely to 
consent to learn if he is at ease in a small unit. 

One of the contributions to group learning is that it meets 
the intellectual, social, and emotional needs of the great variety of 
personalities present in every classroom. Another is that it is 
possible for the teacher, by careful direction, to directly influence 
the patterns of adolescent peer groups by assisting "peripheral” 
adolescents in finding something to which they belong, a place where 
they are needed and where their contributions are valued and respected. 

Two common methods for starting group work in a classroom are: 

1. Develop several small committees to assist in administering 
the classroom, 

2. Start a class with a number of short-term groups, sometimes 
called " buzz" groups, whose purpose it is to canvass opinion 
or to make suggestions for class plans in a minimum of time 
with a maximi.xm of participation. Assuming the students are 
not too familiar with " buzz" groups, it might be well for 
the teacher to follow the natural sequence of unit develop¬ 
ment by dividing the class into small groups of five, for 
about five minutes to discuss what problems should be 
studied in the unit. Then let them state what choices they 
have made, and from there on, arrive at one problem from 
the various group offerings. Short-term" buzz "groups which 
are typically used to attack specific jobs, are limited in 
scope. The tasks can usually be completed in from five to 
twenty minutes. Good preplanning enhances the probability 
of success of such groups with all the accompanying bonus 

of improved morale. Such preplanning should include: 


1/ 





a. Deciding on the problem for the groups to discuss 

b. Choosing the strategic moment to initiate the buzz 
groups 

c. Determining how the buzz groups will be chosen 

d. Setting a time limit 

e. Establishing group organization--selecting chairman, 
recorder, etc. 

f. Arranging for group reports--accomplishments 
Long-Term Groups 

The setting up of the long-term groups requires meticulous 
preplanning by the teacher, giving consideration to: 

1. Feasible dimensions for the project 

2. Equitable division of labor 

3o Accessible resources and materials for study 

4. Explicit goals of immediate appeal and lasting significance 

An exacting analysis by the teacher, based on criteria of 
interest, ability, background, social relationships, or any other im¬ 
portant common element or difference among the students, makes it 
possible for these long-term groups to function advantageously over 
long periods of time. This holds true, particularly, in the carrying 
through of a pertinent problem, such as office management in a busi¬ 
ness office comprised of various departments--or a similar situation 
that might face the students in the work-a-day world. 

It is suggested that a class, as it progresses, make up a 
list of standards by which to evaluate its group outcomes - listing 
"helps" and "hinders" as they pertain to the class. This will be an 
aid in determining the best methods of group activity. 

An anonymous "vote" on the merits of the meeting and its 
achievements or lack of achievements, will enable the teacher and the 
group to get a good, over-all look at themselves with a view to 
correcting any weaknesses which might exist. 

A group participation record is another way of evaluating 

progress. 


18 



The use of student ’’observers” and ’’recorders” for the 
purpose of providing valuable experience in evaluation can aid the 
group when the students return to group status and have in mind what 
they have learned by observing the good and bad techniques of other 
participants. 

Many teachers have come to a new appreciation of some students 
by observing the adequacy with which they can operate with their 
peers. These may be the same students who try and often succeed in 
making life miserable for teachers. The role of the teacher is to 
provide support, to give a word of advice where needed, to assist 
when a real impasse is reached, but, even more, to observe and become 
well acquainted with the students' potentialities. 


Elizabeth Pierce 
Educational Specialist 


19 


LANGUAGE ARTS - LISTENING 


Books on the teaching of reading previous to 1956 rarely 
had "listening" as an index topic. Today many books devote con¬ 
siderable space to a discussion of listening; one language arts book 
has 22 listening entries in the index. 

Incidence of language activities of the average American 
studied by P. T. Rankin estimate 40 percent listening, 30 persent 
speaking, 16 percent reading, and 9 percent writing. 15/ 

A study of school-age population indicated that 98 percent 
of their out-of-school language activity was either speaking or 
listening, but there are approximately 20 times more studies which 
have appeared in the research literature on reading than on listening. 

Attempts have been made to discover trends in listening 
ability. This is still a great field for research. 

Factors that are significant in listening ability: 

1. Difficulty level of material 

2. Cultural level of population 

3. Interest in subject. 16 / 

Some positive results come from attempts to train in 
listening. "The following factors are effective in listening: 

1. Adequate hearing acuity 

2. Recognition of problems and obstacles such as 
prejudices or boredom 

3. Adaptation to the specific kinds of listening 
situations 

4. Relation between auditory vocabulary and visual 
vocabulary 


15 / Oscar S. Causey, The Reading Teacher's Reader . Ronald Press, 
1958, p. 22 

16 / Causey, Op. Cit., pp. 23-24 


20 




5. Ability to judge what is heard, or ability to listen 
critically 

6. Recognition that communication is a responsibility 
shared by both speaker and listener.” 17 / 

Listening and interpretation begin early in life. In the 
beginning, listening is simple and incidental. It progressively 
becomes more pointed, refined, complex, and functional. In later 
stages, it becomes appreciative. 

School activities require varying degrees of listening. 
Listening is really a two-way process. Sustained listening offers 
problems. 

Essential factors in effective listening are: 

1. The listener must feel motivated to listen. 

2. The listener must make adjustments to varied audience 
situations. 

3. The listener must critically evaluate what he hears. 18 / 

Special comprehension techniques must be developed for 
different types of listening. 

"It is the teacher's responsibility to help the child 
develop habits of effective listening in order that he may receive 
clear auditory impressions." 19 / 

Research carried on at the University of Minnesota shows 
that six bad listening habits are almost universal. The six bad 
habits (with suggestions for their correction) are: 

Surface Attention 


Faking attention—so that the individual appears to be 
listening but is actually thinking about something unrelated to the 


17 / Ibid., pp. 25-26 

18 / William H. Burton, Reading in Child Development . Bobbs-Merrill 
Company, 1956, p. 441 

19 / Kathleen B. Hester, Teaching Every Child to Read . Harper and 
Brothers, 1955, p. 109 


21 






speaker's topic. (Imaginative teaching, audience involvement, and 
frequent change of pace promote attentive listening,) 

Missed Meanings 

"I-get-the-facts" listening--in which the listener concen¬ 
trates so hard on getting the facts that he misses their meanings. 
(Facts are important; but ideas, supported by facts, are necessary to 
makg listening meaningful.) 

Mental Laziness 


Avoiding difficult listening—because it requires a mental 
effort to follow the speaker, (Give training in critical thinking. 
Build pride in the ability to follow serious discussions.) 

Limited Experiences 

Premature dismissal of a subject as uninteresting--because 
the listener knows so little about it. (Broaden experience background. 
Give attention to unusual terms, technical experssions, new words and 
concepts to create interest-points and encourage listening.) 

Emphasis on Form 

Critizing delivery and physical appearance-- so that the 
listener fails to get the message. (Put first things first. It's the 
message that counts most--not the framework.) 

Poor Concentration 


Yielding easily to distractions—because of inability to 
concentrate on what is being said. (Remove potential distractions. 
Teach listening skills.) 20 / 

Ruth Strickland in The Language Arts in the Elementary School 
gives a most thorough and enlightening discussion of listening as 


20 / Ralph G. Nichols and Leonard A. Stevens, quoted by Eleanor 
Johnson in My Weekly Reader 


22 










related to children''s learning. She quotes early research figures 
by Rankin, Wilt, and Corey. 

"Listening and reading differ in some important respects. 

As one listens to a person who is speaking, the reaction and 
interpretation he gives to words are colored by the attitude, the 
facial expression, voice, and bodily gestures of the speaker. Written 
words tend to be more impersonal unless one knows the writer well 
enough to read his attitude into his written words. When the words 
are impersonal, the reader builds his reaction almost entirely from 
words themselves. If one's attention wanders in reading, he can go 
back and pick up the dropped threads. In listening, a portion of 
what was presented is lost. In reading, one can stop to ponder on 
points suggested. In listening, one must stay with the task and 
absorb the sound meaning at the rate at which it comas. One has no 
control over it." 21 / 

There are various kinds and stages of listening— all 
important to us as teachers. The terms marginal . appreciative , 
attentive , and analytical listening are terms well defined as to 
their place in learning. 

As teachers we may have missed a vital point if we failed 
to realize the situation a child is faced with when, from listening 
only to mother, or mother and father at home, he is thrust into a 
school situation in which he listens with many and much, and he 
must determine what is directed t o all , what is directed to him , and 
what he may listen to in a marginal way--be choosy if he likes. 

An extensive bibliography on listening could be prepared. 


Gertrude Giesen 
Educational Specialist 


21 / Ruth G. Strickland, The Language Arts in the Elementary School . 
D. C. Heath and Co,, 1957, p. 117 


23 











LENGTH OF SCHOOL DAY AND YEAR 


Research shows that any long period of intellectual inactivity 
causes much forgetting. Also, many children lack supervision of any 
kind during the long summer vacation. 

The continuously expanding curriculum and functions of elemen¬ 
tary and secondary schools make it difficult to see how added purposes 
can be attained without additional time. 

Statistical Abstract of U. S., 1957: 

Maine - average length of school term - 183 days 

New York - " " " " '* - 184 days 

Missouri - " " " " " - 183 days 

Many cities provide for 185-190 actual teachirlg days of school. 

In 1958, New York's Long Beach schools decided to add five 
minutes to the length of each period in the seven-period day, meaning 
that most students in the system get an extra 35 minutes of teaching, 
five days a week. At the State Conference which the superintendent. 

Dr. David Salten, attended it was suggested to eliminate some holidays, 
shorten the Christmas recess, etc. Dr. Salten felt there was merit in 
the idea of lengthening the teaching time, since everything we teach is 
important, particularly in the elementary curriculum. There is little 
now being taught that can be taken out. The requirements of today 
demand that we teach even more. Some educators believe we should be 
teaching foreign languages in the third grade. If there is more to be 
added to the curriculum, and nothing to be taken out, more time must 
be found in which to teach. 

The Long Beach faculty objected to cutting out holidays. 
Teachers proposed that each period be lengthened five minutes. 
"Actually," says Superintendent Salten," it gives us much more time than 
cutting out holidays. The school is operating on this plan with full 
approval." 


A longer day in the classrooms for their children has more 
appeal to Americans than the idea of stretching the school year. Both 
a longer school day and a lengthened school year have been suggested by 
some educators. 

Research shows that longer school terms result in increased 
accomplishment of pupils. 


24 


There is considerable evidence throughout the nation that 
the nine-month school term is not long enough. 

The continuously expanding curriculum and functions of 
elementary and secondary schools make it difficult to see how added 
purposes can be attained under a seemingly constant length of school 
term. 


Dr. Grieder proposes: 

1. A 5-hour day for elementary pupils, kindergarten 
through sixth grade 

2. A 7-hour day for junior and senior high school, seventh 
through twelfth grade 

In summary, a significant proportion of the adult popula¬ 
tion does feel that United States students should put in more time 
on basic education. Specific proposals depend on the type of change 
necessary to effect the proposal. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

American Institute of Public Opinion, "Surveys on Education," 

Gallup Poll 

Grieder, Dr. Calvin, Prof. School Admin. University of Colorado, Boulder, Col. 
"Let's Lengthen the School Year," Nations Schools . Aug. 1958, p.28 

Long Beach Schools, "Give Me Five Minutes More," School Management . 

June 1959, p. 49 


Mamie M. Searles 
Educational Specialist 


25 





ADDITIONAL COST TO OPERATE SCHOOLS TEN MONTHS (200 days) RATHER THAN NINE MONTHS (180 days) 


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NUTRITION EDUCATION IN THE ELEMENTARY AND HIGH SCHOOLS 


A positive approach to nutrition teaching is good. For 
example, the 'burgers, malts, barbecues, and shakes teenagers like, 
furnish vital food elements of the basic diet, but need supplementa¬ 
tion and diversification. Eating habits in the home are known to be 
largely responsible for the food-intake of a child, but the home 
atmosphere may have a reverse effect as the child grows older because 
of psychological tensions, which may result in malnutrition or obesity. 

In junior high school there is a breaking away from earlier 
standards of behavior, a striving for independence and sophistication 
and a desire to be like the group. Regressions in health practices 
relating to nutrition are apparent; many go to school without adequate 
breakfasts and they rely on poorly chosen between-meal snacks. There 
is much evidence of the lack of ascorbic acid and of other diet 
deficiencies. 

Pedagogical preaching and nagging may only sharpen adolescent 
resistence and rebellion. Health practices must be related to the 
deep-down desires and drives of young people. 

Secondary school youngsters are interested in nutrition and 
their interests are built-in motivations toward health education. To 
have a clearer skin, make the football team, diet to lose weight are 
specific, real desires of teenagers, indicating teaching approaches 
which can make nutrition meaningful. 

The teacher must guide young people in the acquisition of 
knowledge and the development of attitudes which will make certain 
an adequate food plan has the greatest impact on health behavior. 22 / 

Raising levels of nutrition on a world-wide scale will require 
increased production of foodstuffs, better distribution in relation to 
population, and the development and extension of education. 

Education in our schools can make a vital contribution to 
present progress in solving food problems. Methods and approaches for 
teaching should be adapted to the particular educational situation in 
which they are to be applied. 


22 / Fred V. Hein, A Nutrition Blueprint for Teenagers . Bureau of Health 
Education, American Medical Association. 1958 


27 




Taking into consideration existing food habits and customs 
there must be education in the right choice of food from that which is 
available and in the preparation of foods so that they retain their 
maximum nutritive values. 23/ 

The American market basket contains a wider variety of foods 
and more of certain nutrients today than at the beginning of the century. 
Through education, people have become more aware of the importance of 
nutrition. Food consumption trends are toward the use of more milk 
and its products, (other than butter) meats and poultry, eggs, fats, 
sugars, green and yellow vegetables, and citrus fruits and tomatoes, but 
away from other fruits and vegetables, especially potatoes. Use of grain 
products has been steadily downward. 24 / 


Mary 0. Perkinson 
Educational Specialist 


23 / Food and Agriculture Committee, Mand Hunger, United Nations, 1957 
24 / Nutrition Committee News, May-June 1958 



NUTRITION EDUCATION IN THE ELEMENTARY AND HIGH SCHOOLS 


Trends in Education Based on Research Facts Sheet 


Food service programs have improved the nutritional status of 
students attending schools, but it is now not enough to promulgate 
programs against specific deficiency diseases. Studies of subclinical 
deficiencies present indications of suboptimal health, which result in 
loss of vigor, retarded growth, low resistance to infection, tooth 
decay, abnormal births, early signs of old age, and other forms of 
i3Iness and debility. A major health problem today in America is that 
obesity. Moreover, obesity and subclinical dietary deficiencies, 
probably occuring together in many individuals, may play an important 
role in the origin of various chronic diseases. Obesity has replaced 
the vitamin-deficiency diseases as the number one nutrition problem in 
the U. S. 


It is very easy to assume a complacent attitude, and be 
oblivious of the fact that many people have poor diets even in a land 
of plenty, and that these diets are leaving imprints, in light of new 
nutrition knowledge which should not be ignored. More often than not, 
nutritional injury, like other physical injuries acquired in the course 
of living, leave a residue of scars. While the harm done may not be 
detectable immediately there can be many insidious cumulative effects. 

"We are largely what we are because of our yesterdays, and the 
older we become the more yesterdays have occurred to affect us." 

....Stieglits 

While present programs are encouraging, we must not let them 
give us a false sense of security, but must proceed toward the ultimate 
aim of optimum nutrition: health and well-being for all. 

Approach 


Nutritional status, by clinical and dietary surveys, reveal 
that the initial steps of a well-rounded program to minimize mal¬ 
nutrition must include a knowledge of what the people eat, what 
nutrients they need, and why dietary inadequacies prevail. 

Objective 

1. The prevention and correction of malnutrition 

2. The rehabilitation of individuals and population 


29 




It is well known that dietary patterns, though firmly rooted 
in culture, may be modified through education. This is especially true 
in the case of children depending upon the circumstances in which it is 
carried out. It is important that people learn to make the right choice 
of food. Education in sound habits of diet is therefore necessary, 
based on adequate appraisal of nutritional status. So dramatic, some¬ 
times, are the results of treatment, in certain vitamin deficiencies, 
that the need for establishing improved dietary habits may be overlooked. 

Achievements 


Far-reaching results of a successful nutritional program 

include: 

1. Reduction in cost of nutritional diseases 

2. Reduction in cost of illness 

3. Contribution to healthful, productive adulthood and 
old age 

4. Increase in productivity 

5. Increase in purchasing power and consumption 

6. Recognition that nutrition has a continuing role in 
raising the standard of living 


Bula E. Reese 
Educational Specialist 


30 



REPORTING TO PARENTS 


Reporting to parents is a necessary function of the school 
and a part of the planned educational program. The major purpose of 
reporting pupil progress is to provide infoirmation necessary for a 
sound working relationship between the home and school as a basis for 
aiding the pupil in his development. The process of reporting progress 
and the form used must reflect the values, philosophy, and purposes of 
the school. 

Methods of Reporting 

1. Conferences : 

Conferences should be scheduled with each parent at 
intervals throughout the year. Individual portfolios of 
pupil work should be kept to show the parent. The teacher 
should prepare for each conference by assembling examples 
of school work showing degree of progress, by making notes 
of a student's strong points which she wishes to mention 
and the weaknesses on which she thinks the parents can 
give assistance. Notes should be made following the 
conference. 

2. Letter s: 

Every parent who has a child in a boarding school 
should be sent letters by the school administrator at 
intervals throughout the year. These letters are not so 
much for the purpose of reporting academic progress, as 
they are for giving the parent information of a general 
nature to which he is entitled. Reporting individual 
academic progress by letter is too time consuming to be 
practical. In situations when a language barrier exists, 
letters have an added handicap. 

3. Report Cards ; 

The report card leaves much to be desired, but to date 
no one has developed a method of reporting sufficiently 
superior to replace it to an appreciable extent. Most 
school systems now advocate conferences and/or letters to 
supplement the report card. Probably the most controversial 
issues are: 


31 






a. Standards for rating 


Shall the student be rated according to progress 
made within the range of his own abilities? 

Shall the student be rated on a competitive basis 
as compared to members of his own group? Or, as 
compared to national norms? 

b. Types of marks 

Percentage grades -- this requires teachers to 
make very fine distinctions. Seventy percent is 
generally considered satisfactory and indicates the 
pupil has earned the right to pass to the next grade, 
while 69 percent indicates failure. What teacher can 
or is willing to grade within such rigid definitions? 

Symbolic grades the use of letters such as A, 
B, C, D, and F, or numbers such as I, II, III, IV, 
and V, or comparative terms such as excellent, good, 
average, and unsatisfactory are considered an improve 
ment over percentage grades in that pupils are 
divided into groups according to the quality of their 
work. Since each symbol represents a wider range of 
achievement, e, g., A or Excellent, equals 95 to 
100 percent, the teacher is not forced into quite the 
narrow line of exactitude as when using percentage 
grades. 

c. Subjective estimates of teachers 


The measurement of achievement is not an exact 
science. Teacher judgment largely determines what 
grade the pupil will receive and few teachers see a 
given achievement as corresponding to a certain grade 

d. Characteristics of a good report card 

/ 

The better form for reporting pupil progress 
requires a minimum amount of clerical work, can be 
made understandable to the parents, promotes communi¬ 
cation between the school and the home. Its contents 
will: 

(1) Report on all phases of development 


32 






(2) Reflect the philosophy of the school 

(3) Be understandable to the child 

(4) Be suitable to the age level for which it is 
intended 

(5) Facilitate adjustment to other school systems 
in case of pupil transfer 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Crosby, Muriel, Supervision as Cooperative Action , Appleton-Century- 
Crofts, Inc., New York City, N. Y. 1957 

Report on Revision of Report Card Committee . Workshop Report, Bureau 
of Indian Affairs. 1955 

Stratemeyer, Forkner, McKim, and Passow, Developing a Curriculum for 
Modern Living , Teacher College, Bureau of Publications, Columbia 
University N.Y. 1957 

The School Executive Magazine . Nov. 1958 


Eunice Logan 
Educational Specialist 


33 







SAMPLE STUDIES IN SUPERVISION 


Educational Leadership - May 1959 


Theme: Supervision 


Curriculum Research, May 1959 - pp, 517-520 

Column Editor: Alexander Frazier 
Contributions: Blenda Proudfoot 
Clarence Fielstra 
Daisy M. Jones 


Summary of Highlights From One of Three Studies in Supervision 

California Study 


Evaluation of points by 400 educational leaders - 50, each, 
of county superintendents, major city school superintendents, 
assistant superintendents in charge of instruction, directors of 
curriculum, secondary school supervisors, and elementary school 
supervisors. 

In terms of both extent of use and effectiveness of use of 
the 10 most widely used activities were the following: 

1. Faculty meetings were ranked first by the group in extent 
of use; seventh in effectiveness, 

2. Classroom visitation ranked second in use; was judged 
fourth in effectiveness, 

3. Grade-level and department meetings ranked high in both 
rankings; third in use, and second in effectiveness, 

4. Teacherworkshop activities in the local district, receiving 
fourth place in use; were first in effectiveness, 

5. Committee and study-group activities were fifth in use; 
third in effectiveness. 

6. College or university courses for advanced degrees and 
credentials were sixth in use; ninth in effectiveness, 

7. Institute programs - seventh and fourteenth, 

8. Demonstrations and observations - eighth and fifth. 


34 




9. Curriculum library and laboratory use - ninth and tenth. 

10. College or university summer sessions workshops on college 
campus - tenth and eighth. 

A study of these results led Fielstra to the following con¬ 
clusions and recommendations: 

1. Faculty meetings, as generally conducted, are of less 
value as means of instructional improvem.ent than the 
extent of their use for that purpose would indicate. Of 
the eight groups of educational leaders questioned, only 
the group of secondary school principals considered these 
meetings very "effective” in achieving instructional- 
improvement goals. 

2. Institute programs of the traditional variety are of less 
value as means of instructional improvement than the 
extent of their use for that purpose would indicate. Only 
secondary school principals considered the "extensiveness” 
of the use of these programs justified by "effectiveness." 

3. College or university courses for advanced degree or 
credentials are of less value as means of instructional 
improvement than the extent of their use for that purpose 
would indicate. Only secondary school principals considered 
such course work to be highly "effective." 

4. Considerably greater use should be made of teacher workshop 
activities on the local district level. All groups of 
educational leaders, except elemfentary and secondary school 
principals, considered such activities to be among the most 
effective of all means of instructional improvement. 

5. More use should be made of teacher committee and study- 
group activities for instructional improvement. There was 
rather general agreement that the "effectiveness" of these 
activities is greater than current "extent” of use would 
indicate. 

6. More use should be made of demonstrations and observations 
for instructional improvement. There was rather general 
agreement that the "effectiveness" of these means is greater 
than present "extent" of use would indicate. 


35 


7. Grade level and department meetings should be continued 
as extensively as at present, if not to an even greater 
extent. All groups of educational leaders ranked these 
meetings high in effectiveness, and both elementary and 
secondary school principals ranked them in first place, 

8. Both child study activities and action research are 
insufficiently used as means of instructional improvement. 
Although relatively little used, these means were already 
considered more "effective" than traditional institute 
programs. With greater use, they may become recognized 

as among the most effective of all means of instructional 
improvement. 


Orpha McPherson 
Educational Specialist 


36 


TEACHING TECHNIQUES IN HIGH SCHOOL 


It is often pointed out by educators that the methods by 
which we achieve are at least as, if not more, important to us as 
is the body of information which we may use while achieving. Method 
is a ”way of doing" and in a democracy the way of doing is of highest 
importance. 

In complex living, which is usual in our country today, how 
we handle a situation may be the deciding factor in success or failure. 
Ability to select and use the most suitable techniques, and to locate 
the appropriate information for the case, is of prime importance in the 
education of all students, particularly students in high schools. 

These abilities must be developed and skills must be taught , 
practiced , and learned as an important part of the education of students. 
They cannot be left to chance, if the student is to become a responsible, 
useful member of society. 

Teachers should plan for and give time throughout each week 
of school to helping students while carrying out their assignments, to 
actually: 

1. Set definite goals for themselves with at least 
approximate time limits for reaching them; and to work 
steadily toward achieving these goals 

2. Recognize some of their most important and meaningful 
problems and to state them in clear, concise terms 

3. Make and follow through plans for solving these problems, 
or at least exploring them rather fully, as a regular 
practice in school work 

4. Select and employ for various types of assignments the 
study skills that are basic to and effective for each 
occasion. 

These are some of the learning techniques that are not yet 
well enough taught; but which the teacher should stress in her 
teaching; and which she should make certain her pupils are learning to 
apply effectively. 


Norma C. Runyan 
Educational Specialist 


37 







TESTING 


Testing should be a supplementary process in the evaluation 
and guidance of pupil growth. Every school should examine carefully 
its own needs for test information before building its testing program. 

When using any evaluation item (test scores, school mark, 
teacher rating) for evaluation and prediction, the predictive value 
of the item is greatly increased when measures of the item are taken 
periodically and accumulated over a period of years. 

Testing programs should fit the philosophy and curriculum of 
the school system in which they are developed. 

Test results should be understood and used by teachers, 
principals, guidance personnel, and administrators. They should never 
be employed as a measure of the teacher's effectiveness but should be 
used to help the teacher become more effective. 

Achievement 5est data should always be considered in relation 
to mental maturity taAt data. (Achievement Expectancy) 


Wallace E. Galluzzi 
Educational Specialist 


38 



TESTING PROGRAM 


What is a testing program? The word "program" has certain 
implications, such as order, system, and planning. It implies a 
sequence of events that has been determined upon after careful thought, 
rather than some haphazard, hit-or-miss affair. A testing program 
should be sound, it should be usable, and it should meet the needs of 
the children. 

A sound testing program should be supplementary not duplica¬ 
tive; usable not confusing; economical not burdensome; comprehensive 
not sporadic; suggestive not dogmatic; progressive not static. A 
testing program should be a planned program to cover a period of years. 

A comprehensive testing program consists of eight steps or 

stages: 

1. Purpose 

It must be recognized at all times that tests are only 
tools, and that measurements are always a means to an end, 
never an end itself. The first step in planning a testing 
program is its purpose. It should provide data which will 
help in the solution of some practical school problems. 

It should motivate study, or diagnose weaknesses, or provide 
a basis for remedial instruction. 

2. Selecting the appropriate test or tests 

Tests are usually selected on the basis of four major 
characteristics: 

a. Validity - trueness of the test or its usefulness for 
a particular purpose 

b. Reliability - consistency of the results 

c. Objectivity - elimination of subjective judgment in 
scoring 

d. Usability - practicability of cost, ease of administer¬ 
ing and scoring, and adequacy of norms 


39 








3. Administering the tests 


It cannot be stated too strongly that correct adminis¬ 
tration of the tests is basic to any testing program. Tests 
administered carelessly will yield invalid results. 
Directions must be accurately followed. 

On the Navajo a testing team in each subagency made up 
of the educational specialists and principals administer the 
tests. 

4. Scoring of the test 

It is emphasized that care and accuracy in scoring the 
tests are as essential for valid test results as is care in 
selecting the instruments and the professional competence 
in administering the tests. In order to insure accuracy in 
both understanding and applying scoring directions, special 
training is needed. It is essential that directions for 
scoring provided in the test manual be followed exactly as 
stated. The scorer cannot apply his own interpretation to 
answers. 

5. Analyzing and interpreting the scores 

There are many terms for teachers to become familiar 
with in testing. However, teachers can analyze the results 
of tests in determining strengths and weaknesses of their 
groups. The test results can be used diagnostically and 
plans made accordingly. Since testing is done on the 
Navajo twice a year, the fall testing is to determine the 
needs or weaknesses. After careful analysis of the results 
plans are made to correct the deficiencies. 

6. How shall we use the results? 

Since testing in schools is usually undertaken in an 
effort to gain an understanding of the individual pupil and 
to adjust his educational program to his needs, there are 
several important uses of test results: 

a. Guidance 

b. Individualization of instruction 

c. Diagnosis of strengths and weaknesses 

d. Evaluation of effectiveness of different kinds of 

instructions 


40 






Research 


e. 

f. Counseling of parents 

g. Reporting to colleges and to prospective employers 

Test results help us to see the individual more clearly, 
as he/she really is. 

7. Retesting to determine the success of the program. 

After applying remedial measures based on the results 
of'the tests, a check-up should be made to determine the 
success of the program. This check-up should not be 
undertaken for at least six months. 

On the Navajo the fall testing is done four weeks 
after the opening of school, and the retesting four weeks 
before the closing of school. 

8. Making suitable records and reports 

Certain records and reports are essential to the 
success of the testing program. In general, four groups 
are interested in what the tests show: the pupil, the 
parents, the teachers, and the school administrators. 

There are various ways of making a report. However, 
its general function is always to present test results 
and related information in such a meaningful way as to 
arouse interest and action, on the part of the teachers, 
principals, supervisors, directors of special divisions, 
and superintendents. 

The pupils have every right to know their performances 
on all achievement tests whether standardized or non- 
standardized. In many cases it is well to go over the 
papers with the pupils in order to point out the nature 
of errors made. The success of any remedial program will 
depend upon the pupils' cooperation. 

The final justification for every testing program 
rests in Mary Jones or John Smith, and it therefore 
behooves all persons who are making and giving tests to 
take them into partnership as soon as completely feasible. 


41 



The results of last year's testing on the Navajo 
show weaknesses in reading comprehension, arithmetic reasoning, and 
English. They show strengths in arithmetic computation and spelling. 


Euphrasia Mitchell 
Educational Specialist 


42 



library of congress 






















































